Amamodeli e-anatomical aphrintiwe anezinhlangothi ezintathu (3DPAMs) abonakala eyithuluzi elifanele ngenxa yokubaluleka kwawo kwezemfundo nokuba nokwenzeka kwawo.Inhloso yalokhu kubuyekezwa ukuchaza nokuhlaziya izindlela ezisetshenziswa ukudala i-3DPAM yokufundisa i-anatomy yomuntu kanye nokuhlola umnikelo wayo wokufundisa.
Ukusesha nge-elekthronikhi kwenziwa ku-PubMed kusetshenziswa la magama alandelayo: imfundo, isikole, ukufunda, ukufundisa, ukuqeqeshwa, ukufundisa, imfundo, izinhlangothi ezintathu, i-3D, i-3-dimensional, ukuphrinta, ukuphrinta, ukuphrinta, i-anatomy, i-anatomy, ne-anatomy. ..Okutholakele kuhlanganisa izici zocwaningo, ukwakheka kwemodeli, ukuhlolwa kokuma kwemvelo, ukusebenza kwezemfundo, amandla kanye nobuthakathaka.
Phakathi kwama-athikili akhethiwe angama-68, inani elikhulu kakhulu lezifundo ezigxile endaweni ye-cranial (izihloko ezingama-33);Izihloko ezingama-51 zikhuluma ngokuphrinta kwamathambo.Ezihlokweni ze-47, i-3DPAM yasungulwa ngokusekelwe ku-tomography yekhompyutha.Izinqubo ezinhlanu zokuphrinta zibaliwe.Ipulasitiki kanye nokuphuma kwayo kwasetshenziswa ezifundweni ezingama-48.Idizayini ngayinye isukela ku-$1.25 iye ku-$2,800.Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu nesikhombisa ziqhathanise i-3DPAM namamodeli ayisethenjwa.Izihloko ezingamashumi amathathu nantathu zahlola imisebenzi yokufundisa.Izinzuzo eziyinhloko ikhwalithi ebonwayo nethintekayo, ukusebenza kahle kokufunda, ukuphindaphinda, ukwenza ngokwezifiso nokuba bukhali, ukonga isikhathi, ukuhlanganiswa kwe-anatomy esebenzayo, amakhono angcono okujikeleza kwengqondo, ukugcinwa kolwazi kanye nokwaneliseka kukathisha/umfundi.Ukungalungi okuyinhloko kuhlobene nomklamo: ukungaguquguquki, ukuntuleka kwemininingwane noma obala, imibala ekhanya kakhulu, izikhathi zokuphrinta ezinde kanye nezindleko eziphezulu.
Lokhu kubuyekezwa okuhlelekile kukhombisa ukuthi i-3DPAM iyabiza futhi iyasebenza ekufundiseni i-anatomy.Amamodeli amaningi angokoqobo adinga ukusetshenziswa kobuchwepheshe bokuphrinta be-3D obubiza kakhulu kanye nezikhathi zokuklama ezinde, okuzokwandisa kakhulu izindleko zizonke.Isihluthulelo ukukhetha indlela efanele yokuthatha izithombe.Ngokombono wokufundisa, i-3DPAM iyithuluzi eliphumelelayo lokufundisa i-anatomy, elinomthelela omuhle emiphumeleni yokufunda nokwaneliseka.Umthelela wokufundisa we-3DPAM ungcono kakhulu uma ikhiqiza kabusha izifunda ze-anatomical eziyinkimbinkimbi futhi abafundi bayisebenzise kusenesikhathi ekuqeqesheni kwabo kwezokwelashwa.
Ukuhlukaniswa kwezidumbu zezilwane kuye kwenziwa kusukela eGrisi lasendulo futhi kungenye yezindlela eziyinhloko zokufundisa i-anatomy.Ukuhlukaniswa kwe-Cadaveric okwenziwe ngesikhathi sokuqeqeshwa okusebenzayo kusetshenziselwa ikharikhulamu yethiyori yabafundi bezokwelapha basenyuvesi futhi njengamanje kubhekwa njengezinga legolide locwaningo lwe-anatomy [1,2,3,4,5].Kodwa-ke, kunezithiyo eziningi ekusetshenzisweni kwezibonelo ze-cadaveric yomuntu, okudala ukucinga amathuluzi amasha okuqeqesha [6, 7].Amanye ala mathuluzi amasha ahlanganisa okungokoqobo okungathandwa kwabathelisi esikubona, amathuluzi edijithali, nokuphrinta kwe-3D.Ngokusho kokubuyekezwa kwezincwadi kwakamuva okwenziwe nguSantos et al.[8] Mayelana nenani lalobu buchwepheshe obusha bokufundisa i-anatomy, ukuphrinta kwe-3D kubonakala kungenye yezinsiza ezibaluleke kakhulu, kokubili ngokwenani lemfundo yabafundi kanye nokwenzeka kokusebenza [4,9,10] .
Ukuphrinta kwe-3D akukusha.Amalungelo obunikazi okuqala ahlobene nalobu buchwepheshe ahlehlela emuva ku-1984: A Le Méhauté, O De Witte kanye no-JC André e-France, futhi ngemva kwamasonto amathathu u-C Hull e-USA.Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, ubuchwepheshe buqhubekile nokuvela futhi ukusetshenziswa kwabo kuye kwanda ezindaweni eziningi.Isibonelo, i-NASA yanyathelisa into yokuqala ngaphesheya koMhlaba ngo-2014 [11].Umkhakha wezokwelapha uphinde wasebenzisa leli thuluzi elisha, ngaleyo ndlela wandise isifiso sokuthuthukisa imithi yomuntu siqu [12].
Ababhali abaningi baye babonisa izinzuzo zokusebenzisa amamodeli e-anatomical aphrintiwe e-3D (3DPAM) emfundweni yezokwelapha [10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].Lapho ufundisa i-anatomy yomuntu, amamodeli angewona ama-pathological kanye ne-anatomically ajwayelekile ayadingeka.Okunye ukubuyekezwa kuhlole amamodeli okuqeqeshwa kwe-pathological noma ezokwelapha/okuhlinzwa [8, 20, 21].Ukuze kuthuthukiswe imodeli eyingxube yokufundisa i-anatomy yomuntu ehlanganisa amathuluzi amasha njengokuphrinta kwe-3D, senze isibuyekezo esihlelekile ukuze sichaze futhi sihlaziye ukuthi izinto eziphrintiwe ze-3D zidalwa kanjani ukuze kufundiswe umzimba womuntu nokuthi abafundi bahlola kanjani ukusebenza kahle kokufunda besebenzisa lezi zinto ze-3D .
Lokhu kubuyekezwa kwezincwadi okuhlelekile kwenziwa ngoJuni 2022 ngaphandle kwemikhawulo yesikhathi kusetshenziswa imihlahlandlela ye-PRISMA (Izinto Zokubika Ezikhethwayo Zokubuyekezwa Okuhlelekile Nokuhlaziywa Kwe-Meta) [22].
Imibandela yokufaka wonke bekungamaphepha ocwaningo asebenzisa i-3DPAM ekufundiseni/ekufundeni kwe-anatomy.Ukubuyekezwa kwemibhalo, izincwadi, noma ama-athikili agxile kumamodeli e-pathological, amamodeli ezilwane, amamodeli wemivubukulo, namamodeli okuqeqeshwa kwezokwelapha/okuhlinza akufakiwe.Izindatshana ezishicilelwe ngesiNgisi kuphela ezikhethiwe.Ama-athikili angenazo izifinyezo ezitholakala ku-inthanethi aye afakwa.Ama-athikili afaka phakathi amamodeli amaningi, okungenani eyodwa yawo eyayivamile ngokokwakheka komzimba noma eyayinezifo ezincane ezingathinti inani lokufundisa, zafakwa.
Ukusesha kwezincwadi kwenziwa kusizindalwazi se-electronic PubMed (National Library of Medicine, NCBI) ukuze kutholakale izifundo ezifanele ezishicilelwe kuze kube nguJuni 2022. Sebenzisa la magama osesho alandelayo: imfundo, isikole, ukufundisa, ukufundisa, ukufunda, ukufundisa, imfundo, ezintathu- i-dimensional, i-3D, i-3D, ukuphrinta, ukuphrinta, ukuphrinta, i-anatomy, i-anatomy, i-anatomy kanye ne-anatomy.Kusetshenziswe umbuzo owodwa: (((imfundo[Isihloko/Abstract] NOMA isikole[Isihloko/Abstract] NOMAUkufunda[Isihloko/Abstract] NOMA ukufundisa[Isihloko/Abstract] NOMA ukuqeqeshwa[Isihloko/Abstract] OReach[Isihloko/Abstract] ] NOMA Imfundo [Isihloko/Abstract]) KANYE (Ubukhulu obuThathu [Isihloko] NOMA 3D [Isihloko] NOMA 3D [Isihloko])) KANYE (Shicilela [Isihloko] NOMA Shicilela [Isihloko] NOMA Shicilela [Isihloko])) KANYE (I-Anatomy) [Isihloko ] ]/abstract] noma anatomy [isihloko/abstract] noma anatomy [isihloko/abstract] noma anatomy [isihloko/abstract]).Ama-athikili engeziwe akhonjwe ngokusesha mathupha kusizindalwazi se-PubMed nokubuyekeza izinkomba zezinye izindatshana zesayensi.Ayikho imikhawulo yedethi esetshenzisiwe, kodwa kusetshenziswe isihlungi esithi “Umuntu”.
Zonke izihloko ezibuyisiwe nezifinyezo zahlolwa ngokumelene nemibandela yokufakwa nokukhishwa ngababhali ababili (i-EBR ne-AL), futhi noma yiluphi ucwaningo olungahlangabezani nazo zonke izindlela zokufaneleka alufakwanga.Ukushicilelwa okugcwele kwezifundo ezisele kwabuyiswa futhi kwabuyekezwa ababhali abathathu (EBR, EBE kanye ne-AL).Uma kunesidingo, ukungaboni ngaso linye ekukhethweni kwezihloko kwaxazululwa ngumuntu wesine (LT).Okushicilelwe okuhlangabezane nazo zonke izindlela zokufakwa kufakwe kulokhu kubuyekezwa.
Ukukhishwa kwedatha kwenziwa ngokuzimela ngababhali ababili (i-EBR ne-AL) ngaphansi kokuqondisa kombhali wesithathu (LT).
- Idatha yokuklama imodeli: izifunda ze-anatomical, izingxenye ezithile ze-anatomical, imodeli yokuqala yokuphrinta kwe-3D, indlela yokutholwa, isofthiwe yokuhlukanisa kanye nokumodela, uhlobo lwephrinta ye-3D, uhlobo lwezinto ezibonakalayo kanye nenani, isikali sokuphrinta, umbala, izindleko zokuphrinta.
- Ukuhlolwa kokuma kwamamodeli: amamodeli asetshenziselwa ukuqhathanisa, ukuhlolwa kwezokwelapha kochwepheshe/othisha, inani labahloli, uhlobo lokuhlola.
- Ukufundisa imodeli ye-3D: ukuhlolwa kolwazi lomfundi, indlela yokuhlola, inani labafundi, inani lamaqembu okuqhathanisa, ukwenza okungahleliwe kwabafundi, imfundo/uhlobo lomfundi.
Izifundo ze-418 zikhonjwe ku-MEDLINE, futhi izihloko ze-139 zazingabandakanywa isihlungi "somuntu".Ngemva kokubuyekeza izihloko nezifinyezo, izifundo eziyi-103 zikhethelwe ukufundwa kombhalo ogcwele.Ama-athikili angama-34 awafakwanga ngenxa yokuthi bekungamamodeli e-pathological (ama-athikili angu-9), amamodeli okuqeqeshwa kwezokwelapha/okuhlinza (izihloko ezi-4), amamodeli ezilwane (ama-athikili angu-4), amamodeli e-radiological we-3D (i-athikili engu-1) noma kwakungezona izihloko zesayensi zoqobo (izahluko eziyi-16).).Ingqikithi yama-athikili angama-68 ifakiwe ekubuyekezweni.Umfanekiso 1 wethula inqubo yokukhetha njengeshadi eligelezayo.
Ishadi eligelezayo elifingqa ukukhonjwa, ukuhlungwa, nokufakwa kwama-athikili kulokhu kubuyekezwa okuhlelekile
Zonke izifundo zishicilelwe phakathi kuka-2014 no-2022, nonyaka wokushicilelwa omaphakathi ka-2019. Phakathi kwezindatshana ezingama-68 ezifakiwe, izifundo ezingama-33 (49%) bezichazayo nezivivinyayo, eziyi-17 (25%) bezihlolwa kuphela, kwathi eziyi-18 (26%) beziyisivivinyo. okokuhlola.Kuyachaza ngokuphelele.Ezifundweni zokuhlola ze-50 (73%), i-21 (31%) isebenzise i-randomization.Izifundo ezingama-34 kuphela (50%) ezifake ukuhlaziya kwezibalo.Ithebula 1 lifingqa izici zocwaningo ngalunye.
Izihloko ze-33 (i-48%) zihlolisise isifunda sekhanda, izihloko ze-19 (28%) zihlolisise isifunda se-thoracic, izihloko ze-17 (25%) zihlole isifunda se-abdominopelvic, futhi izihloko ze-15 (22%) zihlole iziphetho.Ama-athikili angamashumi amahlanu nanye (75%) akhulume ngamathambo aphrintiwe e-3D njengamamodeli e-anatomical noma amamodeli we-anatomical aneziqephu eziningi.
Ngokuphathelene namamodeli omthombo noma amafayela asetshenziselwa ukuthuthukisa i-3DPAM, izihloko ze-23 (34%) zikhulume ngokusetshenziswa kwedatha yesiguli, izihloko ze-20 (29%) zikhulume ngokusetshenziswa kwedatha ye-cadaveric, futhi izihloko ze-17 (25%) zikhulume ngokusetshenziswa kolwazi.kwasetshenziswa, kanti izifundo ezingu-7 (10%) azizange zidalule umthombo wemibhalo esetshenzisiwe.
Izifundo ze-47 (69%) zakha i-3DPAM ngokusekelwe ku-tomography yekhompyutha, futhi izifundo ze-3 (4%) zibike ukusetshenziswa kwe-microCT.Izihloko ezingu-7 (10%) ziveze izinto ze-3D zisebenzisa izikena ezibonakalayo, izindatshana ze-4 (6%) zisebenzisa i-MRI, kanye nesihloko esingu-1 (1%) kusetshenziswa amakhamera nama-microscopes.Ama-athikili angu-14 (21%) awazange akhulume ngomthombo wamafayela omthombo wemodeli ye-3D.Amafayela e-3D adalwa anokulungiswa kwendawo okumaphakathi okungaphansi kuka-0.5 mm.Ukulungiswa okufanelekile ngu-30 μm [80] futhi ukulungiswa okuphezulu ngu-1.5 mm [32].
Kwasetshenziswa izinhlelo zokusebenza zesofthiwe ezingamashumi ayisithupha (ukuhlukaniswa, ukumodela, ukuklama noma ukuphrinta).I-Mimics (i-Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) yayisetshenziswa kaningi (izifundo eziyi-14, 21%), ilandelwa yi-MeshMixer (Autodesk, San Rafael, CA) (izifundo eziyi-13, 19%), Geomagic (3D System, MO, NC, Leesville) .(izifundo ezingu-10, 15%), i-3D Slicer (Ukuqeqeshwa Konjiniyela we-Slicer, Boston, MA) (izifundo ezingu-9, 13%), i-Blender (i-Blender Foundation, i-Amsterdam, i-Netherlands) (izifundo ezingu-8, 12%) kanye ne-CURA (Geldemarsen, Netherlands) (Izifundo ezingu-7, 10%).
Kushiwo amamodeli ephrinta ahlukene angamashumi ayisithupha nesikhombisa kanye nezinqubo ezinhlanu zokuphrinta.Ubuchwepheshe be-FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) busetshenziswe emikhiqizweni engama-26 (38%), ukuqhunyiswa kwempahla emikhiqizweni engu-13 (19%) futhi ekugcineni kuqhume i-binder (imikhiqizo engu-11, 16%).Ubuchwepheshe obusetshenziswe kancane i-stereolithography (SLA) (ama-athikili angu-5, 7%) kanye ne-selective laser sintering (SLS) (ama-athikili angu-4, 6%).Iphrinta esetshenziswa kakhulu (izihloko ezingu-7, 10%) yi-Connex 500 (Stratasys, Rehovot, Israel) [27, 30, 32, 36, 45, 62, 65].
Lapho ucacisa izinto ezisetshenziselwa ukwenza i-3DPAM (izindatshana ezingama-51, ama-75%), izifundo ezingama-48 (71%) zasebenzisa amapulasitiki kanye nokuphuma kwawo.Izinto eziyinhloko ezisetshenzisiwe kwakuyi-PLA (i-polylactic acid) (n = 20, 29%), i-resin (n = 9, 13%) ne-ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) (izinhlobo ezingu-7, 10%).Izindatshana ezingama-23 (34%) zihlole i-3DPAM eyenziwe ngezinto eziningi, izindatshana ezingama-36 (53%) zethule i-3DPAM eyenziwe ngento eyodwa kuphela, futhi izindatshana eziyi-9 (13%) azizange zicacise okuthile.
Ama-athikili angamashumi amabili nesishiyagalolunye (43%) abike izilinganiso zokuphrinta ezisuka ku-0.25:1 kuye ku-2:1, ngesilinganiso esingu-1:1.Ama-athikili angamashumi amabili nanhlanu (37%) asebenzise isilinganiso esingu-1:1.I-28 3DPAMs (41%) yayinemibala eminingi, futhi engu-9 (13%) yadaywa ngemva kokunyathelisa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75].
Izindatshana ezingamashumi amathathu nane (50%) zibalule izindleko.9 ama-athikili (13%) akhulume ngezindleko zamaphrinta e-3D nezinto zokusetshenziswa.Amaphrinta asukela ku-$302 kuye ku-$65,000.Uma kucacisiwe, amanani entengo avela ku-$ 1.25 kuya ku-$ 2,800;lezi zimo ezeqisayo zihambisana nezibonelo zamathambo [47] kanye namamodeli we-retroperitoneal athembekile aphezulu [48].Ithebula 2 lifingqa idatha yemodeli yocwaningo ngalunye olufakiwe.
Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu nesikhombisa (54%) ziqhathanise i-3DAPM nemodeli yereferensi.Phakathi kwalezi zifundo, isiqhathanisi esivame kakhulu kwakuyimodeli yereferensi ye-anatomical, esetshenziswe ku-athikili ye-14 (38%), amalungiselelo ahlanganiswe ezihlokweni ze-6 (16%), amalungiselelo ahlanganiswe ezihlokweni ze-6 (16%).Ukusetshenziswa kwento engekho ngokoqobo, i-computed tomography imaging eyodwa ye-3DPAM ezihlokweni ezi-5 (14%), enye i-3DPAM ezihlokweni ezi-3 (8%), imidlalo ebucayi esihlokweni esi-1 (3%), ama-radiographs esihlokweni esi-1 (3%), amamodeli webhizinisi ku I-athikili engu-1 (3%) kanye neqiniso eli-augmented esihlokweni esi-1 (3%).Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu nane (50%) zihlole i-3DPAM.Ucwaningo oluyishumi nanhlanu (48%) luchaze ulwazi lwabalingani ngokuningiliziwe (Ithebula 3).I-3DPAM yenziwa odokotela abahlinzayo noma abaya odokotela ezifundweni ze-7 (47%), ochwepheshe be-anatomical ezifundweni ze-6 (40%), abafundi ezifundweni ze-3 (20%), othisha (isiyalo esingacacisiwe) ezifundweni ze-3 (20%) zokuhlola kanye nomhloli oyedwa esihlokweni (7%).Isilinganiso senani labahloli ngu-14 (ubuncane obungu-2, ubuningi obungama-30).Izifundo ezingamashumi amathathu nantathu (49%) zihlole i-3DPAM morphology ngekhwalithi, futhi izifundo ezingu-10 (15%) zahlola i-3DPAM morphology ngobuningi.Ezifundweni ezingama-33 ezisebenzise ukuhlola kwekhwalithi, eziyi-16 zasebenzisa ukuhlola okuchazayo kuphela (48%), eziyi-9 zasebenzisa izivivinyo/izilinganiso/inhlolovo (27%), kanti eziyi-8 zasebenzisa isikali se-Likert (24%).Ithebula lesi-3 lifingqa ukuhlolwa kokuma komhlaba kwamamodeli kusifundo ngasinye esifakiwe.
Izindatshana ezingamashumi amathathu nantathu (48%) zahlola futhi zaqhathanisa ukuphumelela kokufundisa i-3DPAM kubafundi.Kulezi zifundo, ama-athikili angama-23 (70%) ahlole ukwaneliseka kwabafundi, i-17 (51%) yasebenzisa isikali se-Likert, futhi isi-6 (18%) sasebenzisa ezinye izindlela.Izindatshana ezingamashumi amabili nambili (67%) zihlole ukufunda kwabafundi ngokuhlolwa kolwazi, lapho i-10 (30%) yazo isebenzise ukuhlolwa kwangaphambili kanye/noma izivivinyo zangemuva.Izifundo eziyishumi nanye (33%) zisebenzise imibuzo nezivivinyo zokuzikhethela eziningi ukuze zihlole ulwazi lwabafundi, kanti izifundo ezinhlanu (15%) zasebenzisa ukulebula kwesithombe/ukuhlonza kwe-anatomical.Isilinganiso sabafundi abangama-76 ababambe iqhaza ocwaningweni ngalunye (ubuncane be-8, ubuningi be-319).Izifundo ezingamashumi amabili nane (72%) zineqembu lokulawula, lapho i-20 (60%) isebenzise i-randomization.Ngokuphambene, ucwaningo olulodwa (3%) lunikeze ngokungahleliwe amamodeli e-anatomical kubafundi abahlukene abayi-10.Ngokwesilinganiso, amaqembu angu-2.6 aqhathaniswa (ubuncane obungu-2, ubuningi obungu-10).Izifundo ezingamashumi amabili nantathu (70%) zibandakanya abafundi bezobudokotela, abangu-14 (42%) babo bebebenza unyaka wokuqala wobudokotela.Izifundo eziyisithupha (18%) zibandakanya izakhamuzi, 4 (12%) abafundi bamazinyo, kanye 3 (9%) abafundi besayensi.Izifundo eziyisithupha (18%) ziqalise futhi zahlola ukuzimela kusetshenziswa i-3DPAM.Ithebula lesi-4 lifingqa imiphumela yokuhlolwa kokusebenza ngempumelelo kokufundisa kwe-3DPAM kusifundo ngasinye esifakiwe.
Izinzuzo eziyinhloko ezibikwe ababhali ngokusebenzisa i-3DPAM njengethuluzi lokufundisa le-anatomy yomuntu evamile yizici ezibukwayo nezithintekayo, okuhlanganisa ubuqiniso [55, 67], ukunemba [44, 50, 72, 85], nokuhlukahluka kokushintshashintsha [34, 45] ]., 48, 64], umbala nokungafihli [28, 45], ukuqina [24, 56, 73], umphumela wezemfundo [16, 32, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], izindleko [27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 64, 80, 81, 83], ukukhiqiza kabusha [80], amathuba okuthuthukisa noma ukwenza kube ngokwakho [28, 30, 36, 45, 48, 51, 53, 59, 61, I-67, i-80], ikhono lokuphatha abafundi [30, 49], ukulondoloza isikhathi sokufundisa [61, 80], kalula isitoreji [61], ikhono lokuhlanganisa i-anatomy esebenzayo noma ukudala izakhiwo ezithile [51, 53], 67] , ukuklama okusheshayo kwamamodeli wamathambo [81], ikhono lokuhlanganisa amamodeli futhi uwayise ekhaya [49, 60, 71], ukuthuthukisa amakhono okujikeleza kwengqondo [23] nokugcinwa kolwazi [32], kanye nakuthisha [ 25, 63] kanye nokwaneliseka kwabafundi [25, 45, 46, 52, 52, 57, 63, 66, 69, 84].
Ukungalungi okuyinhloko kuhlobene nokuklama: ukuqina [80], ukungaguquguquki [28, 62], ukuntuleka kwemininingwane noma obala [28, 30, 34, 45, 48, 62, 64, 81], imibala egqame kakhulu [45].kanye nokuba ntekenteke kwephansi[71].Okunye okubi kuhlanganisa ukulahlekelwa kolwazi [30, 76], isikhathi eside esidingekayo ukuze kuhlukaniswe isithombe [36, 52, 57, 58, 74], isikhathi sokuphrinta [57, 63, 66, 67], ukuntuleka kokuhlukahluka kwe-anatomical [25], kanye nezindleko .Phezulu [48].
Lokhu kubuyekezwa okuhlelekile kufingqa izindatshana ezingama-68 ezishicilelwe eminyakeni eyi-9 futhi kugqamisa intshisekelo yomphakathi wesayensi ku-3DPAM njengethuluzi lokufundisa umzimba womuntu ojwayelekile.Isifunda ngasinye se-anatomical safundwa futhi i-3D yaphrinta.Kulezi zihloko, ama-athikili angama-37 aqhathanise i-3DPAM namanye amamodeli, futhi ama-athikili angama-33 ahlola ukuhlobana kokufundisa kwe-3DPAM kubafundi.
Uma kubhekwa umehluko ekwakhiweni kwezifundo zokuphrinta ze-anatomical 3D, asikubonanga njengokufanelekile ukwenza ukuhlaziya kwe-meta.Ukuhlaziywa kwe-meta okushicilelwe ngo-2020 kwakugxile kakhulu ekuhlolweni kolwazi lwe-anatomical ngemva kokuqeqeshwa ngaphandle kokuhlaziya izici zobuchwepheshe nezobuchwepheshe zomklamo nokukhiqizwa kwe-3DPAM [10].
Isifunda esiyinhloko yisona esifundwa kakhulu, mhlawumbe ngenxa yokuthi inkimbinkimbi ye-anatomy yayo yenza kube nzima kubafundi ukuveza lesi sifunda se-anatomical endaweni enezinhlangothi ezintathu uma kuqhathaniswa nezitho noma umzimba.I-CT iyindlela evame ukusetshenziswa kakhulu yokucabanga.Le nqubo isetshenziswa kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ezilungiselelweni zezokwelapha, kodwa inokulungiswa kwendawo okulinganiselwe kanye nokungafani okuphansi kwezicubu ezithambile.Le mikhawulo yenza ama-CT scan angafaneleki ukuhlukaniswa kanye nokumodela kwesimiso sezinzwa.Ngakolunye uhlangothi, i-computed tomography ifaneleka kangcono ukuhlukaniswa kwezicubu zethambo / imodeli;Ukungafani kwethambo/izicubu ezithambile kusiza ukuqedela lezi zinyathelo ngaphambi kwamamodeli e-anatomical wokuphrinta we-3D.Ngakolunye uhlangothi, i-microCT ibhekwa njengobuchwepheshe bereferensi ngokwemibandela yokuxazulula indawo ekucabangeni kwamathambo [70].Izikena ze-Optical noma i-MRI nazo zingasetshenziswa ukuthola izithombe.Ukulungiswa okuphezulu kuvimbela ukushelela kwezindawo zamathambo futhi kugcina ubuqili bezakhiwo ze-anatomical [59].Ukukhethwa kwemodeli nakho kuthinta ukulungiswa kwendawo: isibonelo, amamodeli epulasitiki anesinqumo esiphansi [45].Abaklami bezithombe kufanele bakhe amamodeli e-3D angokwezifiso, anyusa izindleko ($25 kuya ku-$150 ngehora) [43].Ukuthola amafayela ekhwalithi ephezulu .STL akwanele ukudala amamodeli e-anatomical ekhwalithi ephezulu.Kuyadingeka ukunquma imingcele yokuphrinta, njengokuma kwemodeli ye-anatomical epuleti lokuphrinta [29].Abanye ababhali baphakamisa ukuthi ubuchwepheshe bokuphrinta obuthuthukisiwe obufana ne-SLS kufanele busetshenziswe noma kuphi lapho kunokwenzeka khona ukuze kuthuthukiswe ukunemba kwe-3DPAM [38].Ukukhiqizwa kwe-3DPAM kudinga usizo lochwepheshe;ochwepheshe abafunwa kakhulu onjiniyela [72], ama-radiologists, [75], abaklami bezithombe [43] kanye nama-anatomists [25, 28, 51, 57, 76, 77].
Isoftware yokuhlukanisa kanye nokumodela yizici ezibalulekile ekutholeni amamodeli e-anatomical anembile, kodwa izindleko zalawa maphakheji we-software nokuba yinkimbinkimbi kwawo kuphazamisa ukusetshenziswa kwawo.Ucwaningo oluningana luqhathanise ukusetshenziswa kwamaphakheji e-software ahlukene kanye nobuchwepheshe bokuphrinta, okugqamisa izinzuzo kanye nokubi kobuchwepheshe obunye [68].Ngaphezu kwesofthiwe yokumodela, isofthiwe yokuphrinta ehambisana nephrinta ekhethiwe nayo iyadingeka;abanye ababhali bakhetha ukusebenzisa ukuphrinta kwe-3D okuku-inthanethi [75].Uma kuphrintwa izinto ezanele ze-3D, ukutshalwa kwezimali kungaholela ekubuyiselweni kwezimali [72].
Ipulasitiki yiyona nto esetshenziswa kakhulu.Uhlu lwayo olubanzi lwemibala nemibala iyenza ibe yinto ekhethwayo ye-3DPAM.Abanye ababhali baye batusa amandla ayo aphezulu uma kuqhathaniswa namamodeli endabuko e-cadaveric noma enziwe ngepulasitiki [24, 56, 73].Amanye amapulasitiki anezinto zokugoba noma ezelulayo.Isibonelo, i-Filaflex enobuchwepheshe be-FDM inganwebeka ifike ku-700%.Abanye ababhali bakubheka njengento yokuzikhethela yemisipha, i-tendon kanye ne-ligament replication [63].Ngakolunye uhlangothi, izifundo ezimbili ziphakamise imibuzo mayelana ne-fiber orientation ngesikhathi sokuphrinta.Eqinisweni, i-muscle fiber orientation, ukufakwa, ukuhlala ngaphakathi, kanye nomsebenzi kubalulekile ekufaniseni kwemisipha [33].
Ngokumangalisayo, zimbalwa izifundo ezikhuluma ngezinga lokunyathelisa.Njengoba abantu abaningi bebheka isilinganiso esingu-1:1 njengesijwayelekile, umbhali kungenzeka ukuthi ukhethe ukungasikhulumi.Nakuba ukukhuphula kungaba usizo ekufundeni okuqondisiwe emaqenjini amakhulu, ukuthi kungenzeka yini ukukala akukahlolisiswa, ikakhulukazi ngokukhula kwamasayizi amakilasi kanye nobukhulu bomzimba bemodeli njengento ebalulekile.Yiqiniso, izikali ezinosayizi ogcwele zenza kube lula ukuthola nokuxhumana izakhi ezihlukahlukene ze-anatomical esigulini, ezingase zichaze ukuthi kungani zivame ukusetshenziswa.
Kumaphrinta amaningi atholakalayo emakethe, lawo asebenzisa ubuchwepheshe be-PolyJet (i-inkjet yezinto ezibonakalayo noma esihlanganisayo) ukuze anikeze umbala nezendlalelo eziningi (futhi ngenxa yalokho nokuthungwa okuningi) izindleko zokuphrinta eziphakeme phakathi kwe-US$20,000 kanye ne-US$250,000 (https: //www .aniwaa.com/).Lezi zindleko eziphezulu zingakhawulela ukukhushulwa kwe-3DPAM ezikoleni zezokwelapha.Ngokungeziwe ezindlekweni zephrinta, izindleko zezinto ezidingekayo zokuphrinta inkjet ziphakeme kune-SLA noma amaphrinta e-FDM [68].Izintengo zamaphrinta e-SLA noma e-FDM nazo zithengeka kakhulu, kusukela ku-€576 kuya ku-€4,999 ezihlokweni ezibalwe kulokhu kubuyekezwa.Ngokusho kuka-Tripodi nozakwabo, ingxenye yohlaka lwamathambo ngayinye ingaphrintwa nge-US$1.25 [47].Ucwaningo oluyishumi nanye luphethe ngokuthi ukuphrinta kwe-3D ishibhile kune-plasticization noma amamodeli okuhweba [24, 27, 41, 44, 45, 48, 51, 60, 63, 80, 81, 83].Ngaphezu kwalokho, lezi zinhlobo zezohwebo zenzelwe ukuhlinzeka ngolwazi lwesiguli ngaphandle kwemininingwane eyanele yokufundisa kwe-anatomy [80].Lezi zinhlobo zentengiso zithathwa njengezingaphansi kwe-3DPAM [44].Kuyaphawuleka ukuthi, ngaphezu kobuchwepheshe bokuphrinta obusetshenzisiwe, izindleko zokugcina zilingana nesilinganiso futhi ngakho-ke ubukhulu bokugcina be-3DPAM [48].Ngenxa yalezi zizathu, isikali sosayizi ogcwele siyakhethwa [37].
Ucwaningo olulodwa kuphela oluqhathanise i-3DPAM namamodeli e-anatomical atholakalayo kwezohwebo [72].Amasampula e-Cadaveric ayiziqhathanisi ezisetshenziswa kakhulu ze-3DPAM.Naphezu kokulinganiselwa kwabo, amamodeli e-cadaveric ahlala eyithuluzi elibalulekile lokufundisa i-anatomy.Kumele kwenziwe umehluko phakathi kwe-autopsy, dissection kanye nethambo elomile.Ngokusekelwe ekuhlolweni kokuqeqeshwa, izifundo ezimbili zibonise ukuthi i-3DPAM yayisebenza kakhulu kune-dissection eyenziwe ngepulasitiki [16, 27].Ucwaningo olulodwa luqhathanise ihora elilodwa lokuqeqeshwa kusetshenziswa i-3DPAM (umkhawulo ophansi) nehora elilodwa lokuhlukaniswa kwesifunda esifanayo se-anatomical [78].Kwakungekho mehluko omkhulu phakathi kwalezi zindlela ezimbili zokufundisa.Kungenzeka ukuthi luncane ucwaningo ngalesi sihloko ngoba kunzima ukwenza ukuqhathanisa okunjalo.I-Dissection iyilungiselelo elidla isikhathi labafundi.Ngezinye izikhathi kudingeka inqwaba yamahora okulungiselela, kuye ngokuthi yini elungiswayo.Ukuqhathanisa okwesithathu kungenziwa ngamathambo omile.Ucwaningo olwenziwa ngu-Tsai no-Smith luthole ukuthi izikolo zokuhlola zazingcono kakhulu eqenjini esebenzisa i-3DPAM [51, 63].U-Chen nozakwabo baphawule ukuthi abafundi abasebenzisa amamodeli e-3D benze kangcono ekuhlonzeni izakhiwo (izingebhezi), kodwa awukho umehluko kuzikolo ze-MCQ [69].Ekugcineni, u-Tanner nozakwabo babonise imiphumela engcono yangemuva kokuhlolwa kuleli qembu besebenzisa i-3DPAM ye-pterygopalatine fossa [46].Amanye amathuluzi okufundisa amasha ahlonziwe kulokhu kubuyekezwa kwezincwadi.Okuvame kakhulu phakathi kwazo okungokoqobo okungathandwa kwabathelisi esikubona, okungokoqobo okungokoqobo kanye nemidlalo enzima [43].Ngokuka-Mahrous nozakwabo, ukuthanda amamodeli e-anatomical kuncike enanini lamahora abafundi abadlala imidlalo yevidiyo [31].Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ukuhlehla okukhulu kwamathuluzi amasha wokufundisa we-anatomy impendulo ye-haptic, ikakhulukazi kumathuluzi abonakalayo [48].
Ucwaningo oluningi oluhlola i-3DPAM entsha lusebenzise ukuhlolwa kwangaphambili kolwazi.Lokhu kuhlola kuqala kusiza ukugwema ukuchema ekuhloleni.Abanye ababhali, ngaphambi kokwenza izifundo zokuhlola, abafaki bonke abafundi abathole amaphuzu angaphezu kwesilinganiso esivivinyweni sokuqala [40].Phakathi kokuchema uGaras nozakwabo okukhulunywe ngabo kwakukhona umbala wemodeli nokukhethwa kwamavolontiya ekilasini labafundi [61].Ukufaka amabala kusiza ukuhlonza izakhiwo ze-anatomical.U-Chen kanye nozakwabo basungula izimo zokuhlola eziqinile ngaphandle komehluko wokuqala phakathi kwamaqembu futhi isifundo saphuphuthekiswa ngezinga eliphezulu elingenzeka [69].U-Lim nozakwabo batusa ukuthi ukuhlolwa kwangemva kokuhlolwa kuqedwe ngumuntu wesithathu ukugwema ukuchema ekuhloleni [16].Ezinye izifundo zisebenzise izikali ze-Likert ukuze zihlole ukuthi kungenzeka yini i-3DPAM.Leli thuluzi lifanele ukuhlola ukwaneliseka, kodwa kusekhona ukuchema okubalulekile okufanele kuqashelwe [86].
Ukufaneleka kwezemfundo kwe-3DPAM kwahlolwa ngokuyinhloko phakathi kwabafundi bezokwelapha, okuhlanganisa nabafundi bonyaka wokuqala bezokwelapha, ezifundweni ezingu-14 kwezingu-33.Ocwaningweni lwabo lokuhlola, u-Wilk nozakwabo babike ukuthi abafundi bezokwelapha bakholelwa ukuthi ukuphrinta kwe-3D kufanele kufakwe ekufundeni kwabo kwe-anatomy [87].I-87% yabafundi abahlolwe ocwaningweni lweCercenelli bakholelwa ukuthi unyaka wesibili wokufunda kwakuyisikhathi esingcono kakhulu sokusebenzisa i-3DPAM [84].Imiphumela kaTanner nozakwabo iphinde yabonisa ukuthi abafundi basebenze kangcono uma bengakaze bawufunde lo mkhakha [46].Le datha iphakamisa ukuthi unyaka wokuqala wesikole sezokwelapha isikhathi esilungile sokufaka i-3DPAM ekufundiseni kwe-anatomy.I-meta-analysis ye-Ye isekele lo mbono [18].Ezihlokweni ze-27 ezifakwe ocwaningweni, kube nomehluko omkhulu kuzikolo zokuhlola phakathi kwe-3DPAM namamodeli wendabuko wabafundi bezokwelapha, kodwa hhayi kubahlali.
I-3DPAM njengethuluzi lokufunda ithuthukisa ukuphumelela kwezemfundo [16, 35, 39, 52, 57, 63, 69, 79], ukugcinwa kolwazi lwesikhathi eside [32], nokwaneliseka kwabafundi [25, 45, 46, 52, 57, 63 , 66]., 69 , 84].Amaphaneli ochwepheshe aphinde athola lawa mamodeli ewusizo [37, 42, 49, 81, 82], futhi izifundo ezimbili zithole ukwaneliseka kothisha nge-3DPAM [25, 63].Kuyo yonke imithombo, i-Backhouse kanye nozakwabo babheka ukuphrinta kwe-3D njengendlela engcono kakhulu kumamodeli wendabuko we-anatomical [49].Kuhlaziyo lwabo lokuqala lwe-meta, u-Ye kanye nozakwabo baqinisekise ukuthi abafundi abathole imiyalo ye-3DPAM babenezikolo ezingcono zangemuva kokuhlolwa kunabafundi abathole imiyalo ye-2D noma ye-cadaver [10].Kodwa-ke, bahlukanise i-3DPAM hhayi ngobunkimbinkimbi, kodwa nje ngenhliziyo, isimiso sezinzwa, nomgodi wesisu.Ezifundweni eziyisikhombisa, i-3DPAM ayizange idlulele kwamanye amamodeli ngokusekelwe ekuhlolweni kolwazi okunikezwa abafundi [32, 66, 69, 77, 78, 84].Ekuhlaziyeni kwabo imeta, uSalazar kanye nozakwabo baphethe ngokuthi ukusetshenziswa kwe-3DPAM kuthuthukisa ngokuqondile ukuqonda kwe-anatomy eyinkimbinkimbi [17].Lo mqondo uhambisana nencwadi kaHitas eya kumhleli [88].Ezinye izindawo ze-anatomical ezibhekwa njengeziyinkimbinkimbi kancane azidingi ukusetshenziswa kwe-3DPAM, kanti izindawo ze-anatomical eziyinkimbinkimbi (njengentamo noma isimiso sezinzwa) kungaba ukukhetha okunengqondo kwe-3DPAM.Lo mqondo ungase uchaze ukuthi kungani amanye ama-3DPAM engabhekwa njengaphakeme kunamamodeli endabuko, ikakhulukazi uma abafundi bengenalo ulwazi esizindeni lapho ukusebenza kwemodeli kutholakala kuphakeme.Ngakho, ukwethula imodeli elula kubafundi asebenolwazi oluthile ngesifundo (abafundi bezokwelapha noma izakhamuzi) akusizi ekuthuthukiseni ukusebenza kwabafundi.
Kuzo zonke izinzuzo zemfundo ezibalwe, izifundo ze-11 zigcizelele izimfanelo ezibonakalayo noma ezithintekayo zamamodeli [27,34,44,45,48,50,55,63,67,72,85], kanye nezifundo ze-3 zathuthukisa amandla nokuqina (33 , 50 -52, 63, 79, 85, 86).Ezinye izinzuzo ukuthi abafundi bangakwazi ukuxhaphaza izakhiwo, othisha bangonga isikhathi, kulula ukulondolozwa kunama-cadaver, iphrojekthi ingaqedwa phakathi namahora angu-24, ingasetshenziswa njengethuluzi lokufunda ekhaya, futhi ingasetshenziswa ukufundisa amanani amakhulu. yolwazi.amaqembu [30, 49, 60, 61, 80, 81].Ukuphrinta okuphindaphindiwe kwe-3D kokufundisa kokwakheka kwevolumu ephezulu kwenza amamodeli wokuphrinta we-3D angabizi kakhulu [26].Ukusetshenziswa kwe-3DPAM kungathuthukisa amandla okujikeleza kwengqondo [23] futhi kuthuthukise ukuchazwa kwezithombe ezihlukene [23, 32].Ucwaningo olubili luthole ukuthi abafundi abavezwe ku-3DPAM kungenzeka ukuthi bahlinzwe [40, 74].Izixhumi zensimbi zingashunyekwa ukuze zenze ukunyakaza okudingekayo ukuze kufundwe i-anatomy esebenzayo [51, 53], noma amamodeli angaphrintwa kusetshenziswa imiklamo ye-trigger [67].
Ukuphrinta kwe-3D kuvumela ukudalwa kwamamodeli e-anatomical alungisekayo ngokuthuthukisa izici ezithile phakathi nesiteji sokumodela, [48, 80] ukudala isisekelo esifanele, [59] ukuhlanganisa amamodeli amaningi, [36] kusetshenziswa ukukhanya, (49) umbala, [45] noma ukwenza izakhiwo ezithile zangaphakathi zibonakale [30].I-Tripodi kanye nozakwabo basebenzisa ubumba lokubaza ukuze bagcwalise amamodeli abo aphrintiwe e-3D, begcizelela ukubaluleka kwamamodeli akhiwe ngokuhlanganyela njengamathuluzi okufundisa [47].Ezifundweni ezingu-9, umbala wasetshenziswa ngemva kokunyathelisa [43, 46, 49, 54, 58, 59, 65, 69, 75], kodwa abafundi bawusebenzisa kanye kuphela [49].Ngeshwa, ucwaningo aluzange luhlole ikhwalithi yokuqeqeshwa okuyimodeli noma ukulandelana kokuqeqeshwa.Lokhu kufanele kucatshangelwe kumongo wemfundo ye-anatomy, njengoba izinzuzo zokufunda okuxubile nokudala ngokubambisana zisungulwe kahle [89].Ukuze ubhekane nomsebenzi okhulayo wokukhangisa, ukuzifundela kuye kwasetshenziswa izikhathi eziningi ukuhlola amamodeli [24, 26, 27, 32, 46, 69, 82].
Olunye ucwaningo lwaphetha ngokuthi umbala wezinto zepulasitiki wawukhanya kakhulu[45], olunye ucwaningo lwaphetha ngokuthi imodeli yayintekenteke kakhulu[71], kanti ezinye izifundo ezimbili zibonise ukuntula kokuhlukahluka kwe-anatomical ekwakhiweni kwamamodeli ngamanye[25, 45] ]..Ucwaningo oluyisikhombisa luphethe ngokuthi imininingwane ye-anatomical ye-3DPAM ayanele [28, 34, 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].
Ukuze uthole amamodeli anemininingwane eminingi ye-anatomical yezifunda ezinkulu neziyinkimbinkimbi, njenge-retroperitoneum noma umgogodla womlomo wesibeletho, ukuhlukaniswa kanye nesikhathi sokumodela kubhekwa njengeside kakhulu futhi izindleko ziphezulu kakhulu (cishe i-US $ 2000) [27, 48].U-Hojo nozakwabo basho ocwaningweni lwabo ukuthi kuthatha amahora angu-40 ukudala imodeli ye-anatomical ye-pelvis [42].Isikhathi eside kunazo zonke sokuhlukaniswa kwaba amahora angu-380 ocwaningweni olwenziwa ngu-Weatherall nozakwabo, lapho amamodeli amaningi ahlanganiswa ukuze kwakhiwe imodeli ephelele yendlela yokuphefumula yezingane [36].Ezifundweni eziyisishiyagalolunye, ukuhlukaniswa kanye nesikhathi sokuphrinta kwakubhekwa njengokubi [36, 42, 57, 58, 74].Kodwa-ke, izifundo ze-12 zagxeka izakhiwo ezingokomzimba zamamodeli azo, ikakhulukazi ukungaguquguquki kwazo, [28, 62] ukungabi sobala, [30] fragility kanye ne-monochromaticity, [71] ukuntuleka kwezicubu ezithambile, [66] noma ukuntuleka kwemininingwane [28, 34]., 45, 48, 62, 63, 81].Lezi zimbi zinganqotshwa ngokwandisa isikhathi sokuhlukanisa noma sokulingisa.Ukulahlekelwa nokuthola ulwazi olufanele bekuyinkinga amaqembu amathathu abhekene nayo [30, 74, 77].Ngokwemibiko yesiguli, ama-ejenti ahlukile e-iodine awazange anikeze ukubonakala kwe-vascular okulungile ngenxa yemikhawulo yomthamo [74].Ukujovwa kwemodeli ye-cadaveric kubonakala kuyindlela ekahle eqhela kumgomo othi “kancane ngangokunokwenzeka” kanye nemikhawulo yomthamo we-ejenti yokuqhathanisa ejovwe.
Ngeshwa, izindatshana eziningi azisho ezinye izici ezibalulekile ze-3DPAM.Ngaphansi kwengxenye yama-athikili asho ngokusobala ukuthi ingabe i-3DPAM yabo yayifakwe umbala ogqamile.Ukufakwa kobubanzi bokuphrinta bekungahambisani (43% wama-athikili), futhi kuphela ama-34% akhulume ngokusetshenziswa kwemidiya eminingi.Le mingcele yokuphrinta ibalulekile ngoba ithonya izici zokufunda ze-3DPAM.Izihloko eziningi azinikezi ulwazi olwanele mayelana nobunzima bokuthola i-3DPAM (isikhathi sokuklama, iziqu zabasebenzi, izindleko zesofthiwe, izindleko zokuphrinta, njll.).Lolu lwazi lubalulekile futhi kufanele lucatshangelwe ngaphambi kokucabangela ukuqala iphrojekthi yokwakha i-3DPAM entsha.
Lokhu kubuyekezwa okuhlelekile kukhombisa ukuthi ukuklama nokuphrinta kwe-3D amamodeli ajwayelekile e-anatomical kungenzeka ngezindleko eziphansi, ikakhulukazi uma usebenzisa amaphrinta e-FDM noma e-SLA nezinto zepulasitiki ezinombala owodwa ezingabizi.Nokho, le miklamo eyisisekelo ingathuthukiswa ngokungeza umbala noma ukwengeza imiklamo ezintweni ezihlukene.Amamodeli angokoqobo engeziwe (aphrintiwe kusetshenziswa izinto eziningi zemibala ehlukahlukene kanye nokuthungwa ukuze aphindaphinde izimfanelo ezithintekayo zemodeli yereferensi ye-cadaver) adinga ubuchwepheshe bokuphrinta be-3D obubiza kakhulu kanye nezikhathi zedizayini ezinde.Lokhu kuzonyusa kakhulu izindleko zizonke.Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi iyiphi inqubo yokuphrinta ekhethiwe, ukukhetha indlela efanele yokuthwebula kuyisihluthulelo sempumelelo ye-3DPAM.Uma kuphezulu ukulungiswa kwendawo, kulapho imodeli iba namaqiniso kakhudlwana futhi ingasetshenziselwa ucwaningo oluthuthukisiwe.Ngokombono wokufundisa, i-3DPAM iyithuluzi elisebenzayo lokufundisa i-anatomy, njengoba kufakazelwa izivivinyo zolwazi ezinikezwa abafundi nokwaneliseka kwabo.Umthelela wokufundisa we-3DPAM ungcono kakhulu uma ikhiqiza kabusha izifunda ze-anatomical eziyinkimbinkimbi futhi abafundi bayisebenzise kusenesikhathi ekuqeqesheni kwabo kwezokwelashwa.
Amasethi edatha akhiqizwe kanye/noma ahlaziywa ocwaningweni lwamanje awatholakali esidlangalaleni ngenxa yemingcele yolimi kodwa ayatholakala kumbhali ohambisanayo ngesicelo esifanele.
UDrake RL, u-Lowry DJ, u-Pruitt CM.Ukubuyekezwa kwe-gross anatomy, microanatomy, neurobiology, nezifundo ze-embryology kukharikhulamu yesikole sezokwelapha sase-US.U-Anat Rec.2002;269(2):118-22.
I-Ghosh SK Cadaveric dissection njengethuluzi lokufundisa lesayensi ye-anatomical ekhulwini lama-21: I-Dissection njengethuluzi lokufundisa.Ukuhlaziywa kwemfundo yesayensi.2017;10(3):286–99.
Isikhathi sokuthumela: Apr-09-2024